Opium and China

Opium

China has a rich history, made great discoveries such as kites and gunpowder, and close to ending imperial China by 1793. The British wanted Chinese furniture, silk and other products but China didn't want anything to do with the British. Although later the Chinese would sell items to the British, the British wouldn't get anything in return. Desperate they introduced to the Chinese opium, an addictive drug used in other such as cocaine, heroine and more. Opium has been used in medicine but never has a recreational drug. The Chinese were hooked on it. An immense, illegal trade was created as the drug become more outlawed and addicting to the Chinese. It lead to the Opium war where the British won due to their advance weaponry. This allowed for British to control China, gain Hong Kong, and for the people to become even more hooked onto the drug.


http://www.historywiz.com/downfall.htm 

Bombs away

Atomic Bomb

One of the most destructive weapons to be created by mankind, the atomic bomb. It was created during World War II in the Manhattan Project. The underground project was made to combat the Nazi's own research in atomic warfare. The results of the work lead to the "Little Boy" and " Fat Man". Two powerful, destructive bombs were ready to destroy any one that they were to be dropped on. "Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima and devastated the country.  Killing about ninety percent of the population, destroying around 5 squared miles and equal to about twelve to fifteen thousand tons of TNT. Although it destroyed Hiroshima, the Japanese didn't give up. So the United States dropped "Fat Man" on Nagasaki this time. More heavy and powerful than "Little Boy", the "Fat Man" caused even more destruction to the Japanese land. The Emperor of Japan later announced that Japan has surrender. 

All Because of an Affair

King Henry VIII was the son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He was the second son in his family, and is older brother Arthur became the heir to the throne. King Arthur married Catherine of Aragon, but soon after King Arthur died from an illness. Therefore, Henry VIII was next in line to be the next king. At the age of 17, he took the throne and married his brother’s wife, Catherine of Aragon.

In order to marry a widower, King Henry VIII was able to receive a papal dispensation, which is when the Pope exempts a couple from the Canon Law. At the beginning of King Henry’s reign he was unable to effectively rule, so he then relied on Thomas Wolsey. After one year, King Henry regained control and decided to raise his status as Lord Chancellor.

King Henry and Catherine of Aragon were able to produce 6 children. However, all but one child was able to survive after infancy, and her name was Mary I. However, Henry VIII was worried that he would not be able to produce an heir to the throne and he was growing ti

Catherine of Aragon

King Henry VIII

red of his 24 yearlong marriage with Catherine. He then had an affair with a woman named Anne Boleyn, and married her later. However, the problem King Henry had to face was with the Pope, who did not agree with this marriage. King Henry VIII was going to be charged with treason until he made a decision that would change He decided that he did not need to have the Pope’s permission to make decisions during his reign. In order to do this King Henry broke up the Roman Catholic Church and closed monasteries. Then the Parliament was able to pass the Act of Supremacy, which allowed the king to be above the Church. Therefore, allowing King Henry VIII to do want pleases him, if that means to divorce and marry another woman.

Anne Boleyn

The act of breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church has caused a ripple in the new line of Kings.  The new idea of Anglicanism, which is the faith that the Church of England will contain both Catholicism and Protestant features, was in place after King Henry’s plan to break away from the Roman Catholic Church. Although non-Catholics such as Luther and Zwingli started the Protestant reformation, King Henry’s break away from the Roman Catholic Church was the first political action of the English Reformation.





More Fun Facts about King Henry VIII: http://www.history.com/topics/british-history/henry-viii

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/people/henry_viii/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/people/catherine_of_aragon/

The Pendle Witch Trials

The Pendle Witch Trials started in the town, Pendle of Lancashire. There were two families that were involved in this witch trials, and they were known as the Demdikes or Device and the Chattox. At the trial there were 10 people among these two families that were convicted of witchcraft. The reasons for the conviction was from cursing someone with death, not attending church on Good Friday, and using items to evoke evil or witchcraft.
One of the victims from the Pendle Witch trials was a man named John Law. He stated about an incident he had with a girl named Alizon Device, who was the suspect of witchcraft. Law was walking through a forest, and Alizon Device asked him for pins. However, he refused and the girl cursed him. Later that day John Law fell ill and blamed it on Alizon Device for cursing him, and that she was a witch. 
For people who were convicted for any of these acts of sorcery, they were placed in a cell in Lancaster Castle until the day the judge comes up with the verdict on their lives. A clerk of the council, known as Thomas Potts, tried to prove the suspects as witches. In order for Potts to prove his theory, he was supported by a girl named Jeannette Device. Jeanette was a 9 year old girl and became the eye witness. In the end, she was able to prove that all 10 of the suspects participated in witchcraft. Jeanette was Potts’ star witness, and she identified the suspects who had committed the acts of evil that signified as witches. She even accused her own mother of witchcraft.
At the end of the trial, the judged ended the decision stating that the court finds the 10 accused suspects guilty for performing witchcraft. The punishment that was given to the convicted was to be hanged on Gallow’s Hill in front of an audience. This way it will enforce the power of the law among the people. Although the guilty were hung, family and friends of the convicted would try to speed up their death by pulling on their legs.

Five pillars of faith

     In Islam there are five basic acts that are mandatory for believers. These are called the five pillars of faith and they are:
The faith or belief in the oneness of god and the certainty of Mohammed being a prophet.
The salah or daily prayer.
Concern for the donation to the needy.
Fasting for self purification.
The pilgrimage to mecca for those able to.


     Iman is the declaration of faith. Salah is the prayer that is performed five times a day And can be done anywhere if not with a congregation. Zakah is charity where one fortieth of a persons capital is donated. The charity also means to share good intent and wisdom. Swam is the act of fasting which occurs every year in the month of Ramadan. It is a method of self purification and self restraint tjat brings your focus closer to god. Finally the Hajj is the pilgrimage to mecca. This pillar is only for those who are physically and financially able to do so. Pilgrims wear special cloths as to not distinguish themselves and to stand equal to all before god. The tradition has pilgrims move around the Ka'bah seven times and between the Safa and Marwa hills seven times. They later stand for prayer for gods forgiveness on the plains of 'Arafat.
     At one point in earlier ages there was a sixth pillar of faith called Jihad. This was the war against non-believers of Allah and Mohammad. This is part of what cause the struggle with the western European powers in the early 1000s.

Islam on knowledge

     In the Islamic faith knowledge plays an important role in worship. Knowledge is emphasized to understand this world and the divine. To find a purpose in life through the engagement of the world. The house of wisdom created by caliph al-Mamoon in the 9th century houses translated Greek, Persian, Syriac, and Indian manuscripts. A gigantic collection of knowledge housing studies from people like Aristotle, Plato, and Pythagoras.

     The build upon previous knowledge allowed for great advances in a multitude of fields such as medicine and science. Things like perfume and acid were made in the 9th century. Also medical practices that incorporated Greek, Chinese, and Indian medical techniques creating pediatrics. Muhammad on knowledge " a person who follows a path for acquiring knowledge, Allah will make easy the passage to paradise for him." (Hadith 252)

Martin Luther

One of the main reformers of the Protestant Reformation was Martin Luther. He believed in interpreting the bible on your own and that you don't need clergy from the Roman Catholic Church. He believed the key to salvation was reading the Bible and having faith, not by preforming good deeds and "donating" money to the church. There was also a story told that he nailed the 95 thesis on the Catholic Church for everybody to see after he saw one of the bishops of the church selling indulgences on the street. He translaed the Bible from Italian to German, converted the New Testament, and was able to convert Germans to follow him. Also, he had a rival who was a reformer named Zwingli who believed in reading the Bible literally so he didn't agree to his ideas.

Age of Exploration

Europeans held overseas expeditions in search of  new trade routes for spices and goods. Instead Christopher Columbus ended up discovering the New World, through the new world the Spanish and Portuguese empire's began to fund oversea voyages and colonize the New World. Discoveries and conquest in the New World stimulated Europe's economy and fed the growth of capitalism. European’s economic life came to depend on Eastern spices, African slaves, and American metal. From over sea expansion the Spanish and Portuguese came across several different resources including gold and new metals. The Portuguese began the Atlantic slave trade and made a fortune, while the Spanish conquered the Incan and Aztec empires and brought a fortune in gold back to Spain.

Black death

The origins of the Black Death can be tracked back to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia in the 1320s. The cause of this sudden explosion of the plague is not exactly known. From the desert, it spread out in all directions. Of most importance was the spread eastward to China. China suffered an emergence of bubonic plague during the early 1330s. European traders, particularly those from the Italian city states, traveled the Black Sea region regularly. Surviving documents show that one group of traders from Genoa arrived in Sicily In October of 1347, fresh from a voyage to China. This was most likely the introduction of the plague to European lands. Along with the Chinese goods on board, the traders carried the bacterium yersinia pestis in the rats on board as well as in some of the sailors themselves. The Black Death had arrived in Europe.

When the Black Death had finally passed out of Western Europe in 1350, the populations of different regions had been reduced heavily. Some villages of Germany were completely wiped out, while other areas of Germany remained virtually untouched. Italy had been hit the hardest by the plague because of the dense population of merchants and active lifestyle within the city states. The city state of Florence was reduced by 33% in population within the first six months of infection. By the end, as much as 75% of the population had perished, which left the economy in shambles. Widespread death was not limited to the lower classes. In Avignon, 1/3 of the cardinals were dead. Overall, 25 million people died in just under five years between 1347 and 1352. It is important to realize that the plague had not entirely vanished, only the primary epidemic. Recurrences of bubonic plague occurred every so often and had a traumatic effect on population even then. The plague did not entire go away as we know it until the late fifteenth century. 

How money talks in politics

Hello, today I wanted to share share with you how corrupt our government system is. Today in our country individuals and companies have the power to purchase senators and house electors because they have the money to do so. During elections most of these companies toss money at certain candidates whose views reflect their own. 95% of the time when a candidate has more money than their opponent they will win that election. That is not a fact I created, that % is from the California senate elections from our 53 districts. Money talks and if we don't do something about this we will lose our ability to control our own government.



Today millions and millions of private money is flowing into the pockets of politicians. Since this is now legal companies are pooing their extra money into lobbying their own laws into the books. In all, businesses and their interest groups spent $2.6 billion on lobbying last year. Such expenditures are perfectly legal, while corporations and their lobbyists maintain that they are merely seeking to keep lawmakers informed on key issues.
  

Having the ability to lobby their own rules and laws into congress will only widen the gap between companies and citizens. This will further increase the wealth gap that everyone is already talking about. If we continue to let big business's rule our country, they will eventually become more powerful than our own government and take over the world. 

Feudalism means a type of government institutions that had been common during the period of warrior-landholders that resided in much of Middle Ages of Europe.  It came from northern France  during the tenth century after the Carolingian empire collapsed. it met the needs of people else where in Europe. Feudalism was not a clearcut system but it had two defining principles. These were warfare and land.

Feudalism gave its society a pecking order. Lessor landowners showed respect and paid homage with servitude in an army to large landowners, and the large landowners protected them and their interest in return.The landowners gave each other certain rights and interests over resources. Which in those days were land and peasants that worked that land.

(The Council Of Trent)

In the 1530s Martin Luther's protests against the Catholic Church could no longer be taken as lightly as they once were, and in 1534, the new pope, Paul III had committed to making reforms inside the church. He reexamined the papal administration, and ordered a report that was made by a committee of cardinals that eventually revealed abuses among the clergy that were so appalling he made his findings secret. He eventually decided to make a council of bishops to tackle the other problems that were facing the the church.

In the beginning the Council of Trent took place in the same named Northern Italian city. It lasted from 1545-1563. While papal ambassadors looked over the sessions, everything they decided had to be approved by the pope.  While at first Protestants were meant to join in and help the growing animosity between the Catholic and Protestant religious divide. Protestants were unwilling and eventually not allowed to join in the discussions.

The Crusades

The First Crusades

French warriors  made the bulk of the  numbers to this crusade. They came to the call of Urban, a French aristocrat, along with dukes, counts, and barons. They all set out in 1096  with an army that numbered in the fifteen thousand range. It is the only crusade that for at least a short time attained  it's goal of turning back the Turkish threat to Constantinople. They moved on to establish dukedoms in eastern Anatolia. They eventually advanced on Jerusalem and took the city.

The Second Crusade

This Crusade happened between 1147- 1149. It was called in because the Turkish had succeeding in taking back a little bit of what the French warriors had gained in the first crusades. They were again called to arms, this time by an monk named Bernard Of Clairvaux. This time the forces were cut into pieces, and ultimately failed.

The Black Death (Medieval Pandemic)

It started in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia in the 1320s and eventually because of the expansion of trade during the Early and High Middle Ages, it spread to merchants of Italy because of  Italy's close approximation with China and the trade routes. Italy is where the plague was introduced to Europe where it continued to spread around the continent.

 It was one of the most life changing events in the 12th century. Twenty-five million Europeans died. The population in Europe before the plague had gone from thirty-eight million to seventy-four million between 1000-1300. It was a period of urbanization and stabilization but had no sewer systems.  Which probably had helped the plague spread. Now the only indicator of the plague resides on the mark it left on the human genome.

Protestant Reformation in Europe

      Europe was originally ruled mainly by the religious authority. The pope was said to be a divine ruler selected by God. They were trusted to make God-like decisions during their rule. Indulgences were sold to those who have sinned in order to have their sins forgiven in the Catholic church's eyes.
   The government and religious authority eventually broke in two after the protestant reformation. It all began with Luther's 95 thesis's that contradicted the Catholic church and their beliefs. He wanted to reform the church because of certain practices, such as the indulgences that weren't fair. He denied that the pope had the right to forgive one's sins.

   Eventually city-states began to break away from the Catholic church and practice these reforms made by Luther. City's slowly shifted to the practices of the protestant church. Kings gained absolute control over their kingdoms. Europe was said to be more similar to a democratic rule. The development of science was very large because the protestants were open to new ideas.

Plague of Justinian

When most think of devastating pandemics, the first thing that comes to mind is the Black Plague, also known as the Bubonic Plague. However, another plague that occurred centuries before that may not sound so familiar is the Plague of Justinian. The Justinian Plague occurred in the sixth century about eight hundred years earlier then the Black Death, both have been two of the deadliest plagues in history

The Plague of Justinian effected the Eastern Roman Empire, especially its capital Constantinople, and Sasssanid Empire and port cities around the Mediterranean. As the plague swept across Asia, Europe, North  Africa and Arabia, it killed an estimated 30-50 million people from the initial outbreak of it to the recurrences that appeared for up to two centuries after. At the time of the initial outbreak, the plague claimed the lives of about half the population. 

Findings have now shown that the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death were caused by different strains of the sane deadly microbe. It is believed that this plague was also spread to humans from rodents who carried the disease. It is also believed that the original outbreak in Constantinople, one of the places it hit the hardest, was brought there by infected rats who had been brought over on grain boats from Egypt. Just like the Black Death, the result of the Plague of Justinian have left long term effects on Europe and the Christian history.

Renaissance Period - Rebirth

The Renaissance, which marks the "rebirth" of civilization after the Middle Ages, symbolized an increased interest in Classical scholarship and values. It glorifies the revival of Classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation. i.e., after a time of slow growth and development from a social/cultural standpoint, people at the time were pleased to see a period of learning and wisdom.

Humanism was the first intellectual movement that expressed the spirit of the Renaissance. Humanism defined in the sense of the Renaissance is a "spirit of learning and a renewed confidence in the ability of human beings to determine for themselves truth and falsehood". It's a system that puts its importance on people, rather than divine matters. Constantinople's fall gave a major boost to humanism, and resulted in a flock of scholars to Italy. Humanism really captured the essence of mankind and their actions. This was a catch at self-expression because Humanism aimed to pry people of the expectations expected from that of a religious orthodoxy, thus promoting creativity.



The beauty of the Renaissance period is reflected in the artwork that came about. Artists such as Raphael, Giovanni Pisano (a sculptor), and Micaelozza (an architect). It was through art that people were able to express their thoughts of the visible world and a place for their dignity.

The Renaissance and its artistic period grew out into artwork consisting of paintings and monuments. This was the start of a great period as it transitioned into movements such as Mannerism and Baroque. I think this is a great period of time because people were diverging into their own minds and expressing their own morals and ideals through mediums of creativity. The innovation that all of these artists, whether doing sculpture or paintings, is the reason people today continue to pursue degrees in art and put their thumbprint on society.

Sources:
http://www.britannica.com/event/Renaissance
http://americanhumanist.org/humanism/what_is_humanism

Prester John

Prester John known as a mythical religious figure in Europe. The legend of Prester John was prominent from the 12th to the 17th century. He is known as being a popular King and Christian patriarch in European chronicles. Legend says that he ruled over a “Nestorian” Christian nation lost amid the Muslims and pagans of the Orient. Prester John is seen as a symbol of the Church’s universality to european Christians. Supposedly, he had magical abilities that he used to defeat the Muslim armies. Because of this he was see as an ally in the battle for territory.  His existence is credited to helping fuel European exploration in Africa and India. 

The letter that described the lost Christian kingdom that Prester John ruled over was copied and distributed all throughout Europe. The letter was shared over many years and throughout those years the legend evolved and grew, with new details being added and changed. The legend gained a large following and it is said to of inspired people. Although the letter of Prester John was widely popular, its exact origins is still unclear.

The Marriage of King Henry VIII & Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn, one of King Henry VIII six wives, left behind a legacy that is still strong today. She was born in 1501 in England, and became one of the most admired ladies in the court once she became a lady in waiting to Catherine of Aragon. This is when she caught the attention of King Henry, who was married to Catherine at the time. Henry wanted to annul his marriage to Catherine so that he could marry Anne, she did not want to be a mistress. Without the blessing of the pope, Henry and Anne discreetly married in a secret ceremony. Because of this, Anne was known publicly as being sexually promiscuous. Because of that and the publics loyalty to Catherine,  she was generally never really liked by England. 

In 1533, Anne gave birth to Elizabeth I. Elizabeth was their only living child together. Due to Henry’s mission to have a son, he pursued two mistresses which enraged Anne. Their marriage began to fall apart and Henry increasingly got frustrated about not having a legitimate son yet. Henry began to annul his marriage to Anne, and then falsely charged her  with things such as adultery and incest. Anne denied all charges but was sentenced to death. She was executed on May 19, 1536. Although she lived a short life and was only Queen briefly, Anne Boleyn is one of the most talked about and remembered Queens of the time. Her daughter, Elizabeth I, who is Anne’s greatest legacy, went on to become one of England's most revered Queens. 

Religious Beliefs

Christine Bridger

12-9-15
HIST 100 Hunt

Religious Beliefs
Before learning about the different types of beliefs and the gods that certain people worshiped, there was a time where the only religion there was, was Christianity and the belief that there is only one god. But even that had grown over time. From Christianity came, Lutheran, Anglican, Catholic, Evangelical, Buddhism and many more. How do you get so many new faiths and beliefs all starting from one? How could you possibly change it so much that you end up with dozens of similar but completely different faiths? Spreading that worldwide, so many people believe in so many different things. Like why do the Greeks and Romans believe that there is more than one god? Why is it that they all believe in the same gods and what they stand for but have different names? What is the point of doing that? How many times can you change a religion to a point where it still has the same belief in one god, one son, one only holy spirit but have completely different belief systems? Like how come Catholics do not read or follow the bible but Christians base and live their lives all around the bible? They somewhat have the same ideas, morals and beliefs but they are still two different things. Or why are the church services that they have for Catholics and Christians so different? Even with what they are called; Catholics call their sermons ‘mass’ and Christians called theirs ‘service’. 

Art

Christine Bridger 

12-9-15

HIST 100Hunt

Art
Art is confusing. Art is creative. Art is beautiful. It truly is a patient persons works. I have never really understood art and what it represents and how much time and effort that is put into it that makes it what it is. Just like technology and medicine has come a long ways from what it used to be in the fourteenth and fifteenth century, art has also come a long ways as well. And what is great about art is that if you are a professional, the more time that passes (always after your death) is that it becomes more vulnerable. But what I find interesting is are the different perspectives and ideas and opinions and beauty that people have about art. Like someone can find a painting extremely beautiful and thought provoking but others see an ugly and disturbing piece of work. Who decides what or how makes a piece of art beautiful or ugly? Why do they get to determine that. Because if art is this crazy thing that makes people think of things differently, why do some artist become famous or not? Like how or why did Leonardo da Vinci become super famous? Why is Vincent Van Gogh famous? How did Michelangelo become one of world's most famous artists? Why is Monet and Picasso such a big deal? My question is more how did these men develop their image to what it is now? How are they still so famous up till now? They are dead so why are they still talked about? They were many artists from that time period so what made these men so well known? Why is Leonardo da Vinci’s painting of the Mona Lisa so famous. No offense to her, but she is not the best looker or even smiling for that matter of fact. So how is it that a 2′ 6′′ x 1′ 9′′ painting of a women is one of the world’s prized pieces of art? 

Technology

Christine Bridger 

12-9-15

HIST 100 Hunt

Technology
Technology in the ancient world was and is truly amazing. Without the inventions that were created back then, we may or may not have access to all of the things that we have now. Things that we take for granted because we have lived with them most of or our entire lives. Things like heat, tires, light, ink, silk, and other clothing material, paper, time, paint, or even the printing press and glasses. All of these things were invented back then and just think about where we would be today without them. I’m sure someone would have thought to create some of these things later on in time but if they were created later, we may or may not have accomplished and learned all of the things that we learned and have knowledge of today. Just think of how far how knowledge in medicine has gone. What they knew then and what they knew now is truly amazing. I think that in these times, we can easily take advantage of what we have because we just expect to have them and that they are always just there laying around for our convenience. But without the great minds of then and now, we may not have what we think is disposable and unimportant that we have now. Without people like Thomas Edison, we would not have the invention of the light bulb, a motion picture camera or even the invention of the phonograph. And without these inventions, we would not be where we are today. The cameras that we use nowadays, music and most importantly light. And while they may have may a great hit back in those days, just think about how we celebrate over the littlest things that are practically useless or more like junk but if someone were to invent a life change or life altering invention how much praise they would get. They would get so much credit at bettering the human life.

Plague

Christine Bridger 

12-9-15

HIST 100 Hunt

Plague
If the old world never came to the new world I 100% believe that there would not be as many diseases that developed then and we sure would not have as many ailments that we do now. When coming over from Europe, not only did the people bring along other people, animals, foods, bugs and weapons they also brought with them, sickness. They most likely did not know that their sickness would and could be transferred by mosquitoes, rats, flies but they unknowingly brought it with them which also brought forth death in the new world. If the Europeans took more care of they personal hygiene by bathing more often, changing their clothes or doing anything more than what they were, they would not have infected the entire Americas. Maybe it is just me and my opinion but if they did take better care of themselves, they may not of killed as many people as they intended to. Without any knowledge or the immunity to help take care of themselves, the Native Americans were completely blindsided by what these people brought along with them from their foreign countries and off their large ships. Since they did not know what they were dealing with, it was impossible for them to know how to treat whatever it was that their fellow tribal mates were going through and trying to fight off. And without being able to effectively communicate with the new foreign people, they were not able to ask how to help treat whatever sickness was taking over their tribes and villages. They did not have the resources or the correct medicine to help cure or prevent whatever illness the people were going through. Since they already had it in Europe, they were not affected by the sickness because they had already built their immune systems to help ward off and fight the diseases but without their knowledge to help them out, the Native Americans were fighting a battle that could not be won.

Cyrus Cylinder

I had the amazing opportunity to view a Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia exhibit in San Francisco's Asian Art Museum. Quoting from the Museum's article, The Cyrus Cylinder "is among the most revered objects to have survived from the ancient world." This was also the first time that the Cyrus Cylinder was showcased in the US from the British Museum (even better!).

The Cylinder was the first physical structure that acted as the world's first document of human rights. Inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform, it tells of Cyrus the Great, the Persian King, and his contribution of restoring shrines and capturing Babylon.


In addition to being regarded as a special and innovative document, The Cylinder is a symbol of how the Persian Empire came to be as well as its condition under Darius the Great. Persia covered a large region at the time, so technological advances as well as setting up new practices had to be implemented. Architecture was a big part as well, symbolizing Persia's new beginnin
This document itself is made entirely of baked clay, which reflects the innovation that Persians had during the time it was created (539 - 538 BCE, during the Achaemenid period 550 - 330 BCE).

For those curious as to what exactly the Cyrus Cylinder reads, here is the translation provided by the British Museum:

"…    Ellipses indicate missing text 
[ ]    Brackets indicate words extrapolated from fragments 
?      Question marks indicate conjectures  

1. [When ... Mar]duk, king of the whole of heaven and earth, the ....... who, in his ..., lays waste his.......
2. [........................................................................] broad? in intelligence, ...... who inspects (?) the wor]ld quarters (regions)
3. [................................................................] his [first]born (=Belshazzar), a low person, was put in charge of his country,
4. but [..................................................................................] he set [a (…) counter]feit over them.
5. He ma[de] a counterfeit of Esagil, [and ..............]... for Ur and the rest of the cult-cities.
6. Rites inappropriate to them, [impure] fo[od-offerings ..........................................................] disrespectful […] were daily gabbled, and, as an insult,
7. he brought the daily offerings to a halt; he inter[fered with the rites and] instituted [.......] within the sanctuaries. In his mind, reverential fear of Marduk, king of the gods, came to an end.
8. He did yet more evil to his city every day; … his [people ...................], he brought ruin on them all by a yoke without relief.
9. Enlil-of-the-gods became extremely angry at their complaints, and […] their territory. The gods who lived within them left their shrines,
10. angry that he had made (them) enter into Shuanna (Babylon). Ex[alted Marduk, Enlil-of-the-Go]ds, relented. He changed his mind about all the settlements whose sanctuaries were in ruins,
11. and the population of the land of Sumer and Akkad who had become like corpses, and took pity on them. He inspected and checked all the countries,
12. seeking for the upright king of his choice. He took the hand of Cyrus, king of the city of Anshan, and called him by his name, proclaiming him aloud for the kingship over all of everything.
13. He made the land of Guti and all the Median troops prostrate themselves at his feet, while he shepherded in justice and righteousness the black-headed people
14. whom he had put under his care. Marduk, the great lord, who nurtures his people, saw with pleasure his fine deeds and true heart,
15. and ordered that he should go to Babylon. He had him take the road to Tintir (Babylon), and, like a friend and companion, he walked at his side.
16. His vast troops whose number, like the water in a river, could not be counted, were marching fully-armed at his side.
17. He had him enter without fighting or battle right into Shuanna; he saved his city Babylon from hardship. He handed over to him Nabonidus, the king who did not fear him.
18. All the people of Tintir, of all Sumer and Akkad, nobles and governors, bowed down before him and kissed his feet, rejoicing over his kingship and their faces shone.
19. The lord through whose help all were rescued from death and who saved them all from distress and hardship, they blessed him sweetly and praised his name.
20. I am Cyrus, king of the universe, the great king, the powerful king, king of Babylon, king of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters of the world,
21. son of Cambyses, the great king, king of the city of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, the great king, ki[ng of the ci]ty of Anshan, descendant of Teispes, the great king, king of the city of Anshan,
22. the perpetual seed of kingship, whose reign Bel (Marduk) and Nabu love, and with whose kingship, to their joy, they concern themselves. When I went as harbinger of peace i[nt]o Babylon
23. I founded my sovereign residence within the palace amid celebration and rejoicing. Marduk, the great lord, bestowed on me as my destiny the great magnanimity of one who loves Babylon, and I every day sought him out in awe.
24. My vast troops were marching peaceably in Babylon, and the whole of [Sumer] and Akkad had nothing to fear.
25. I sought the safety of the city of Babylon and all its sanctuaries. As for the population of Babylon [..., w]ho as if without div[ine intention] had endured a yoke not decreed for them,
26. I soothed their weariness; I freed them from their bonds (?). Marduk, the great lord, rejoiced at [my good] deeds,
27. and he pronounced a sweet blessing over me, Cyrus, the king who fears him, and over Cambyses, the son [my] issue, [and over] my all my troops,
28. that we might live happily in his presence, in well-being. At his exalted command, all kings who sit on thrones,
29. from every quarter, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, those who inhabit [remote distric]ts (and) the kings of the land of Amurru who live in tents, all of them,
30. brought their weighty tribute into Shuanna, and kissed my feet. From [Shuanna] I sent back to their places to the city of Ashur and Susa,
31. Akkad, the land of Eshnunna, the city of Zamban, the city of Meturnu, Der, as far as the border of the land of Guti—the sanctuaries across the river Tigris—whose shrines had earlier become dilapidated,
32. the gods who lived therein, and made permanent sanctuaries for them. I collected together all of their people and returned them to their settlements,
33. and the gods of the land of Sumer and Akkad which Nabonidus—to the fury of the lord of the gods—had brought into Shuanna, at the command of Marduk, the great lord,
34. I returned them unharmed to their cells, in the sanctuaries that make them happy. May all the gods that I returned to their sanctuaries,
35. every day before Bel and Nabu, ask for a long life for me, and mention my good deeds, and say to Marduk, my lord, this: “Cyrus, the king who fears you, and Cambyses his son,
36. may they be the provisioners of our shrines until distant (?) days, and the population of Babylon call blessings on my kingship. I have enabled all the lands to live in peace.”
37. Every day I increased by [… ge]ese, two ducks and ten pigeons the [former offerings] of geese, ducks and pigeons.
38. I strove to strengthen the defences of the wall Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon,
39. and [I completed] the quay of baked brick on the bank of the moat which an earlier king had bu[ilt but not com]pleted its work.
40. [I ...... which did not surround the city] outside, which no earlier king had built, his workforce, the levee [from his land, in/int]o Shuanna.
41. [.........................................................................with bitum]en and baked brick I built anew, and [completed] its [work].
42. [..............................................................] great [doors of cedar wood] with bronze cladding,
43. [and I installed] all their doors, threshold slabs and door fittings with copper parts. [..........................]. I saw within it an inscription of Ashurbanipal, a king who preceded me;
44. [...................................................] in its place. May Marduk, the great lord, present to me as a gift a long life and the fullness of age,
45. [a secure throne and an enduring rei]gn, [and may I ...... in] your heart forever.

a. [Written and check]ed [from a…]; (this) tablet (is) of
b. Qishti-Marduk, son of […]."

As you can see, the Cylinder was very well developed and served as a great foundation for what we now know as the Constitution. While the exhibit is no longer on display, getting to know and appreciate the development of the Persian Empire was definitely an unforgettable experience. Great job, Cyrus!

Sources: 
http://www.asianart.org/exhibitions_index/cyrus-cylinder
http://www.asianart.org/exhibitions_index/translation-of-the-cyrus-cylinder

Muhammad

Muhammad is the founder of the Islam religion; born in 570, he lived a normal life. As he grew up, he became known to be truthful, honest, trustworthy, generous, and sincere. At the age of forty, Muhammad  received his first revelation from God through the Angel Gabriel. The revelations continued for twenty-three years, and they are collectively known as the Quran. As soon as he began to recite the Quran and to preach the truth which God had revealed to him, he and his small group of followers suffered persecution from unbelievers. The persecution grew so fierce that in the year 622 God gave them the command to emigrate. This emigration from Mecca to the city of Madinah, some 260 miles to the north, marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. Some years after, Muhammad and his followers were allowed to return to Mecca, where they forgave the people who persecuted them. Before Muhammad died, the greater area of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. One the reasons for the rapid and peaceful spread of Islam was the truth and clarity of its doctrine. Islam calls for faith in only one God, who is the only one worthy of worship. 

The Prophet Muhammad  was a perfect example of an honest, just, merciful, compassionate, truthful, and brave human being. Though he was a man, he was far removed from all evil characteristics that mankind had created.   



Source: muhammadbiography.blogspot.com/

The Black Death

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Europe was hit with many disasters and with the population rising, that meant that the number of fatalities was going to rise. In the year 1347 the Black Death arrived in Europe, over the next five years, the mysterious Black Death would kill more than 20 million people in Europe–almost one-third of the continent’s population. They did not understand the science behind the disease, many people believed that the Black Death was a kind of divine punishment–retribution for sins against God such as greed, blasphemy, fornication and worldliness. And the only way to overcome the plague was to win God’s forgiveness. Some people believed that the way to do this was to purge their communities of heretics and other troublemakers–so, for example, many thousands of Jews were massacred in 1348 and 1349. The plague not only affected thousands of families and people in general but it also had drastic economic, social and psychological effects on society. 


The black death arrived in Britain from central Asia in the autumn of 1348. Believed to be spread by infected fleas carried on rats, the disease swept through Europe over the better part of the next year. One of history’s most devastating epidemics. 



Sources: www.historytoday.com/.../black-death-greatest-catastrophe